Egypt has always been known for its abundance of gold, and ancient miners made sure to make the most of economically viable sources using traditional methods. The Eastern Desert was a prime location, but Egypt also had access to the wealth of Nubia, which is why it was called “nbw” (the Egyptian term for gold). The hieroglyph representing gold, a broad collar, can be seen in early writings from Dynasty 1. Even before the invention of writing, gold artifacts like beads and other small items for personal adornment were being crafted in Egypt during the fourth millennium B.C. Throughout its long history, Egypt continued to produce gold jewelry for everyday wear as well as for use in religious ceremonies or burial rituals.
The Egyptians commonly used gold that also contained silver, sometimes in significant quantities. It seems that throughout Egypt’s history, gold was not processed to enhance its purity. The shade of a metal is influenced by what it is made of. Variations in color, such as the vibrant yellow of a central boss on an ancient vessel from the Third Intermediate Period and the lighter grayish yellow of a uraeus pendant from the Middle Kingdom, are the result of the natural silver content present in the gold.
The pendant actually consists of a combination of gold and silver in almost equal proportions, making it electrum. This is a natural blend of gold with over 20 percent silver, as described by the ancient Roman scholar Pliny the Elder in his work “Natural History.”
During the Amarna Period, Egyptian craftsmen created a unique ring featuring Shu and Tefnut by mixing copper with a gold-silver alloy to achieve a distinct reddish color, a rare technique during that time.
The preservation of ancient gold artifacts is heavily influenced by historical events and archaeological discoveries. Egyptian sites have been subject to looting for centuries, leading to the melting down of much precious metal. As a result, there are relatively few surviving gold pieces from the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods. One example in the Metropolitan Museum’s collection is a small bangle bracelet from the tomb of Khasekhemwy, the final ruler of Dynasty 2. This bracelet was crafted from a wide band of hammered gold sheet. Additionally, small stone vessels sealed with textured gold sheets and tied with gold wire “string” were also uncovered in this royal tomb.
The property of malleability, which is commonly seen in metals and especially prominent in gold, refers to the metal’s ability to be hammered into thin sheets. This characteristic is why many ancient Egyptian gold artifacts have been preserved in the form of solid, cast objects, like the ram’s-head amulet from the Kushite Period. These items are usually small in size and not very common.
In ancient times, they were able to create gold leaf as thin as one micron. Thicker foils or sheets were then applied using either mechanical means or adhesive to give various materials a golden surface. This technique was used on items such as the wooden collar from Dynasty 12 belonging to Hapiankhtifi and the bronze mount of a basalt heart scarab from the New Kingdom era.
The leaf was attached to the wide collar using gesso on linen, while the scarab had a thicker foil crimped between the bronze mount and the stone. Gold inlays were also added to bronze statues to enhance their appearance.
In ancient Egypt, gilded glass jewelry was all the rage during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras. A technique for gilding silver was also developed in the Near East, possibly in Iran. Although its use in Egypt during the late first millennium B.C. is not well-documented, it gained popularity during the Roman Period. Mercury gilding, which originated from East Asia, later became the go-to method for gilding silver and copper substrates in the Mediterranean region, maintaining its popularity into more recent times.
During excavations in Dahshur, Lahun, and Hawara in the early 1900s, archaeologists unearthed a significant amount of jewelry that belonged to high-ranking women connected to the royal courts of the Dynasty 12 rulers Senwosret II and Amenemhat III. One of the remarkable pieces found was Sithathoryunet’s pectoral, which was crafted using the cloisonné inlay technique. This involved placing numerous hammered gold strips, known as cloisons, onto a gold back plate made up of multiple hammered sheets and cast elements. The intricate design extended to the reverse side of the back plate, showcasing matching patterns and additional details. While the pectoral was undoubtedly appreciated for its fine craftsmanship, its primary purpose was ceremonial. Inscribed with Senwosret II’s name, it symbolized Sithathoryunet’s role in ensuring the king’s eternal well-being.
Even though gold was mainly controlled by the king as a commodity, even common Egyptians owned gold jewelry. Cylinder amulets from the Middle Kingdom period showcased intricate details and relief designs created using granulation, a technique that involved adding small metal spheres (granules) arranged in zigzag patterns. These granules were attached using colloidal hard soldering, a method that involved using a copper-mineral powder to lower the melting point of the gold surfaces. This process resulted in the diffusion of gold and copper atoms, creating a strong physical bond between the granules and the hammered sheet support.
Another crucial technique used in the past and present for joining precious metals is soldering. This process involves creating an alloy, known as the solder, with a lower melting point than the metals being joined. The solder is shaped into small squares or strips called paillons, which are strategically placed and heated to melt, allowing the metals to bond. Evidence of early soldering techniques can be seen on a gold ball-bead necklace from Dynasty 12, as well as more refined work on the electrum uraeus pendant. The incredible amount of gold discovered in Tutankhamun’s tomb reflects immense wealth, suggesting that other ancient Egyptian royals may have been buried with even more extravagant treasures. Even less notable members of royal families from the New Kingdom were laid to rest with opulent gold possessions.
Three women from different countries, believed to be minor wives of Thutmose III, were buried together with matching sets of luxurious gold jewelry and other burial items. Each queen was buried with a pair of intricately designed gold sandals and cosmetic jars made from a variety of precious stones and materials, all adorned with delicate gold sheets.
Historical records mention the abundance of gold, silver, bronze, and other metal statues used in Egyptian temple ceremonies, but only one gold statue has survived the test of time. This particular statue of Amun, missing its arms, was made from a single solid cast while the arms were attached later. The intricate details, such as the scimitar in his right hand and the ankh sign in his left, were also crafted separately and joined together with solder. Some experts believe that certain elements like Amun’s crown, attachment loops, and support were intentionally removed before the statue ended up in the Carnarvon Collection in 1917, rather than being damaged over time or during burial.
Utilizing wire technology is crucial in the realm of goldworking, particularly when crafting jewelry. In the past, wires were commonly utilized for adding intricate surface detailing, often alongside granulation work, and were attached using a specialized method involving colloidal hard soldering. These wires could be intricately twisted, braided, or woven to create unique chains, which were then used structurally to connect various components together. The wires themselves were typically crafted from tightly twisted metal strips or rods, or from square section rods that were hammered into a rounded shape. The strap chain fragment, made up of yards of wire, was produced using the former method, while the wires on the electrum uraeus pendant were hammered into shape.
During Macedonian, Ptolemaic, and Roman eras, jewelry from different regions found its way to Egypt, influencing the local designs. The Roman Period also saw the introduction of a new trend in jewelry making in Egypt – incorporating gold coins into the design. This technique, known as opus interassile, brought a unique foreign influence into Egyptian jewelry, blending tradition with innovation.
